The Chomsky On Language Acquisitions English Language Essay

The Chomsky On Language Acquisitions English Language Essay One of the greatest linguists of all times, Noam Chomsky asserts that language is innate. He wrote his famous book, Language and Mind in 1972, in which he proposed his famous theories on  language acquisition. In this book Chomsky wrote, When we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the human essence, the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, unique to man. According to Chomsky, language is one characteristic that is unique to humans among all other living beings. Chomskys theories have made it easier to understand the evolution and development of the languages. Chomskys theories on language are based upon the importance of linguistics in modern sciences. According to him, to study languages, it is important study human nature that lies in human mind. Chomsky on Language Acquisition Noam Chomsky postulated that the mechanism of the language acquisition is derived from the innate processes. Innate is something which is already there in mind since birth. The theory proposed by Chomsky is proved by the children living in same linguistic community. Moreover, they are not influenced by the external experiences which bring about the comparable grammar. He thus proposed his theory on language acquisition in 1977 as all children share the same internal constraints which characterize narrowly the grammar they are going to construct. He also proposed that all of us live in a biological world, and according to him, mental world is no exception. He also believes that as there are stages of development for other parts of the body,  language development  can also be achieved up to a certain age. Innatism: Noam Chomsky The linguist Noam Chomskys views have had a tremendous impact on language acquisition theory and research. Chomskys transformation-generative grammar (TG) approach differed substantially from previous views of language learning. For Chomsky, the essential rules of grammar (everything we know about our language: phonology, syntax, morphology, semantics, etc.) lie hidden in the abstract deep structure of language. Deep structure rules are universal. Its not what the environment brings to the child but what the child brings to the environment. Chomsky claimed that children are biologically programmed for language and that language develops in the child in just the same way that other biological functions develop. For example, every child will learn how to walk (if there is nothing wrong with the child). The child doesnt need to be taught. Most children learn to walk at about the same age. For Chomsky, language acquisition is very similar. The environment makes a basic contribution in this case, the availability of people who speak to the child. The childs biological endowment will do the rest. This is known as the innatist position. Chomsky proposed his theory in reaction to what he saw as the inadequacy of the behaviorist theory of learning based on imitation and habit formation. Evidence seems very strong that children are by no means systematically corrected or instructed on language. Have you ever tried to correct the grammar of a three-year-old? Not many parents have been observed correcting their toddlers or pre-schoolers grammatical errors. When parents do correct, research has shown, they tend to focus on meaning and not on language form, often simply repeating the childs incorrect utterance in a more complete grammatical form. When parents do correct errors, children often ignore the correction, continuing to use their own way of saying things. A Social Interaction Model of First Language Acquisition The foundation of all language, according to Vygotsky, is social interaction. Vygotsky originated the notion that the most fertile environment for all early learning, including child 4 language acquisition, is found in what he termed the Zone of Proximal Development. The relation between thought and word is a living person. In the Vygotskian approach, children attempt to communicate, and in these attempts they learn language. Social interaction creates many opportunities for children to acquire the necessary social features of their native language: they learn how to use speech in different contexts, and they acquire the ability to know what to say to whom, when, and where. Consider the acquisition of various forms of requests. The zone of proximal development creates many opportunities for English-speaking children to realize that a request such as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢gimmeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬- can work with younger playmates and some siblings but may not work successfully with mom and dad. Older children learn more complicated variations of requests, such as knowing that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Wouldnt you like toà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬- is a more polite way of asking à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Wannaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬- Second Language Learning It is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different than a child acquiring a first language, both in terms of personal characteristics and conditions for learning. Questions to consider when trying to understand how second language learners learn are: 1. Does the learner already know a language? 2. Is the learner cognitively mature? That is, is she or he able to engage in problem solving, deduction, and complex memory tasks? 3. How well developed is the learners metalinguistic awareness? That is, can the learner treat language as an object (for example, define a word, say what sounds make up that word, or state a rule such as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬-add an -s to form the plural)? 4. How extensive is the learners general knowledge of the world? This kind of knowledge makes it easier to understand language because one can sometimes make good guesses about what the speaker is probably saying even when the language carrying the message is new. 5. Is the learner nervous about making mistakes and sounding à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬-silly when speaking the language? 6. Does the learning environment allow the learner to be silent in the early stages of learning, or is he or she expected to speak from the beginning?5 7. Is there enough time available for language learning to take place, and is there plenty of contact with proficient speakers of the language? 8. Does the learner receive corrective feedback when he or she makes errors in grammar or pronunciation, or does the listener overlook these errors and pay attention to the message? 9. Does the learner receive corrective feedback when she or he uses the wrong word, or does the listener usually try to guess the intended meaning? 10. Is the learner exposed to language which is modified in terms of speed of delivery, complexity of grammatical structure, and vocabulary, so that it matches the learners ability to comprehend and interact? All second language learners, regardless of age, have by definition already acquired at least one language. This prior knowledge may be an advantage in the sense that the learner has an idea of how languages work. On the other hand, knowledge of other languages can also lead learners to make incorrect guesses about how the second language works, and this may cause errors which a first language learner would not make. Young language learners begin the task of language learning without the benefit of some of the skills and knowledge which adolescent and adult learners have. The first language learner does not have the same cognitive maturity, metalinguistic awareness, or world knowledge as older second language learners. Although they are developing cognitive maturity and metalinguistic awareness, they still have a long way to go in these areas, as well as in the area of world knowledge, before they reach the levels already attained by adults and adolescents. Most child learners do not feel nervous about attempting to use the language, even when their proficiency is quite limited. Adults and adolescents, on the other hand, often find it very stressful when they are unable to express themselves clearly and correctly. Nevertheless, even very young children (pre-school) children differ in their nervousness when faced with speaking a language they do not know well. Some children happily chatter away in their new language; others prefer to listen and participate silently in social interaction with their peers. Fortunately for these children, the learning environment rarely puts pressure on them to speak when they are not ready. One condition which appears to be common among learners of all ages though perhaps not in equal quantities is access to modified input. This adjusted speech style is sometimes called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬-foreigner talk or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬-teacher talk. Many people who interact regularly with language learners, such as experienced teachers, seem to have a sense of what adjustments are needed to help their learners understand. The  Nativist Position The best known and most influential proponent of the innatist position is  Noam  Chomsky.  In his famous  review of Skinners book  Verbal  Behavior  he pointed out that imitation and SR-theories of learning fail to explain how people come to produce sentences which they never heard before. He argues that cognition plays the decisive part in creating the ability to produce an unlimited number of sentences with the knowledge of a limited number of grammatical rules. He calls this ability  language competence  and distinguishes it from  performance, that is the actual use of language which  under the heat of communicative exchanges or when people are tired  may lead to the production of grammatically faulty sentences. Explaining language learning on a cognitive basis raises the question, however, how children come to know the categories and rules of grammar which they need for a creative production of sentences.  In that context the logical problem of language acquisition and the poverty of the input argument prompt researchers like Chomsky,  Fodor, and  Steven Pinker  to argue that languages are not learned like any other complex faculty (flying airplanes or doing complex mathematical calculations, for instance) but acquired on the basis of an innate knowledge of grammatical principles contained in  a  language acquisition device (LAD).  In later versions of Chomskyan theories the LAD is renamed  Universal Grammar.  The logical problem of language acquisition, which gave rise to the problematic distinction of language acquisition and learning,  is seen to lie in the fact that adult language generally is full of grammatically errors, unfinished sentences and similar handicaps w hich seem to make it impossible for the human brain/mind as a logical machine to extract from that sort of controversial input the right sort of grammatical rules. Observation of children and their parents reveals, too, that adults do not give children explicit instruction in rules of grammar (which would undo the logical problem of language acquisition). The protagonists of the nativist position of language acquisition aim to explain  first language acquisition, not  second language acquisition. Quite a few researchers in this camp doubt that UG (Universal Grammar) is available for second language acquisition. Some of them argue that UG may be available for second language acquisition up to a critical age only (early puberty) after which the plasticity of the brain would put an end to the beneficial workings of UG. We must remember, too, that  second language acquisition (SLA)  is different from  foreign language learning.SLA takes place in a target language environment and provides the learners with plenty of language input in contextually meaningful situations. In contrast foreign language learning takes place under extreme time limits in a first language cultural context and provides comparatively poor environmental conditions for language acquisition. Because of the reasons just mentioned it is problematic to directly connect nativist theories of language acquisition with new developments in FLT. The truth is, though, that nativist theories have definitely influenced theories on second language acquisition and they have indirectly had an effect on theories and methods in FLT. The perhaps most prominent example of such indirect influences and subterranean cross currents is the comprehensible input hypothesis developed by  Stephen Krashen. His  theory of second language acquisition actually consists of five main hypotheses: 1. the acquisition-learning hypothesis, 2. the monitor hypothesis, 3. the natural order hypothesis, 4. the input hypothesis, and 5. the affective filter hypothesis. His position shares with nativist theories the learning acquisition dichotomy. The crucial point of his arguments is that grammar acquisition is an unconscious process which cannot really be helped or replaced by the teaching and conscious learni ng of explicit rules of grammar. What teachers can do to help their learners is make comprehensible the second language input which they provide because learners will find it easier to figure out the rules underlying the production of the input if they understand its meaning.

How Does Stevenson Explore The Notion Of Duality Throughout The Novel Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde? Essay

Robert Louis Stevenson is renowned all over the world today for his contributions to English literature; he makes his skill evident in his ability to utilize the duality of soul concept through example of one Henry Jekyll, showing in many ways what can and does happen when Jekyll decides to experiment with the aspect of his evil side and bring it to the surface as the twisted character of Edward Hyde; incorporating the interplay of good and evil, in his novel Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, published in 1886. Stevenson creates an effective mystery tale set in Victorian London and does this by presenting sub themes that relate to the central theme of duality. He keeps readers engaged with the developing plot and unravels pieces of the puzzle as the story unfolds, creating an effective mystery tale while his emotions are shown as the nature of humankind and Victorian moralities are explained in one of the most famous novels of the present day. In the story I have noted that Stevenson presents the reader with the complexities of human nature through his portrayal of characters. For example, he describes Utterson as being â€Å"dreary, and, yet somehow lovable†, he then reveals that although he â€Å"enjoyed the theatre† he had not been for â€Å"twenty years†. These descriptions are contradictory and reveal that Utterson has two sides to his personality, one of which he now seeks to suppress, the other a respectable, reliable and responsible man. I believe that Stevenson needs readers to relate to and rely on Utterson as he is the most frequent narrator of the story, therefore he presents him with this censored past where he used to be much more outgoing, yet now he is old and respectable. Also, Victorians were much more impressionable than people of the present day, therefore Utterson’s upkeep of his respectable, sensible side to his personality publicly and the fact that he â€Å"drank gin when he was alone†, which helps us to warm to him even more, was vital to Stevenson’s success in displaying the central theme of Duality through the sub themes of Suppression and Respectability, explored through the character of Dr. Utterson. I think this is successful because even in a character such as Utterson, who we all come to empathise with and rely on, can be susceptible to duality, just as any human being can, therefore it makes us think and question ourselves. Another way in which Stevenson represents Duality is through the setting of the door in the first chapter; aptly titled â€Å"Story of The Door†. The door is situated on a typical, fairly rich Victorian street which is described to have â€Å"cleanliness and gaiety of note†, this gives the impression that this area has a reputation to upkeep, however, the splendid view of the street is ruined by a door which stands out somewhat, â€Å"Blistered and distained† with â€Å"prolonged and sordid negligence†. This description uses great imagery that causes an impact on the reader. One interpretation a reader could have is that, despite the cleanliness and class of the street, duality is shown in the fact that behind closed doors things may not always be what they seem, therefore the are two sides, one which seeks to suppress what is really going on inside, and one which has a respectable reputation to uphold; just like the character of Dr. Utterson. Also, this could be representation of how rich and poor live so close together, as in Victorian times a rich street could be directly adjacent to a poor, therefore Stevenson is demonstrating how different these classes are, yet they are living closely together, another way in which duality is explained. Furthermore, Stevenson could also be relating to his previous life in his hometown of Edinburgh, which was divided into poor and rich, old and new by a single river. Stevenson, who lived on the rich and new side often ventured into the other and gained an insight on how different the two sides were, whilst seeking his inner temptations and leading a double life, therefore duality was recognised within himself. We know that the door is significant in this chapter and it is evident in the fact that the chapter is named about it, therefore it makes us realised that it is important for a reason, and that reason is to represent duality further in a setting. This is successful as there are many different interpretations to make, yet all lead to the same conclusion of duality, and this chapter is vital in letting readers know that duality is, and will be, the key to the story. A further way in which Stevenson explores duality is in the structure of the novel. The novel’s structure is unique in the fact that it isn’t written entirely in first person, as it would have been possible to tell the story in the manner of a confession from Jekyll’s point of view. We are limited to Utterson when reading in an omniscient view for the first eight chapters, however after this in Chapter 9 it switches to first person, where we read â€Å"Dr Llanyon’s Narrative†, and after this it is again first person, where we hear from Dr. Henry Jekyll himself. The structural and linguistic devices employed by Stevenson create an unusual atmosphere of controlled suspense, which surrounds the story. The gradual building up of horror and destruction is achieved through a slow accumulation of unemotional detail. The fact that the story is written in the view of three different, distinct people gives it three different endings, making us go back in time to read from another point of view, this uncovers more of the story and keeps the reader engaged as they can finally see behind the closed doors and find out what they have been dying to find out throughout the story. This notion of suspense keeps the genre of mystery intact as only minor clues are given away until the three different endings, each one gathering more evidence, this is extremely successful because of this and further benefits the theme of duality, and of course mystery. Robert Louis Stevenson’s tale can be interpreted as a coherent warning to Victorian society of the potential effect of such asphyxiated social, ethical and moral conventions and I would agree that some of these still exist today. Through the use of the sub-themes of characters, setting and structure Stevenson makes us realise that duality is present within ourselves, and can be dangerous at times. Furthermore, he explores what it means to be human thus ensuring that his mysterious tale is as revealing, relevant and enjoyable to a reader in 21st century as it was in the 19th.

The Gap Between Rich And Poor - 2458 Words

The focus of the research is on the gap between rich and poor in the United States. Especially in income inequality, how the shares are distributed among families and in what ways are the poor affected. Also, to show how the gap between the rich and poor alternated throughout the years. The gap between them is expected to increase resulting in serious threat. This is because the poor are dealing with weak health, negative energy, unwilling to work and a higher proportion of bad behavior since they don’t have hope. Since their voice is not heard, the United States will lose a lot of talents and skills of those young poor people who lack the ability to reach their voice. Also, as the gap between the two increases, middle class people will also get affected. The middle class will be considered from the poor because the rich’s wealth will increase and their income will decrease. Background and focus of the research: According to (Leonard, 2010) state of the world 2004 report shows that world’s richest population, which is 20 percent of the world population is accountable for 76.6 percent of the total of private consumption. Middle class people who are 60 percent of the world’s population are using 21.9 percent of worlds private consumption. Also, the world’s poorest class is approximately 20 percent of world’s population. They are using 1.5 percent of worlds private consumption. (Leonard, 2010) The gap between rich and poor people shows inequality between them.Show MoreRelatedThe Gap Between Rich And Poor1262 Words   |  6 PagesDown Easy and Up Hard Continuously, both poor and rich people will always exist. Rich people are mostly born from wealthy families. The more they work, the richer they get. Furthermore, the less rich people work, it can be a source of downfall to their economic stability. 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Element Names That Can Be Spelled Using Element Symbols

There are only a few element names that can be spelled out using element symbols, the one- and two- letter shorthand used to identify elements on the periodic table and in chemical equations. Here is an alphabetical list of these element names. Note copper and phosphorus repeat element symbols to form their names. Although the names for  arsenic, copper, iron, silver, and tin may be spelled out using element symbols, they cannot be written using their own element symbols. Oganesson and tennessine are two of the latest element names added to the periodic table that can be spelled using element symbols. arsenic ArSeNIC, ArSeNiC astatine AsTaTiNe bismuth BiSmUTh, BISmUTh carbon CaRbON, CArBON copper CoPPEr, COPPEr iron IrON krypton KrYPtON neon NeON oganesson OGaNeSSON phosphorus PHOsPHoRuS, PHoSPHORuS, PHOSPHORuS, PHoSPHoRuS, PHOSPHoRus,PHOsPHORuS silicon SiLiCoN, SiLiCON, SILiCON, SILiCoN silver SILvEr, SiLvEr tennessine TeNNeSSiNe tin TiN xenon XeNON, XeNoN